To protect a unit (e. g., a series capacitor in a transmission line) against overvoltage, an arc-inducing device, so called spark gap, is connected in parallel to the unit. The value of R1 was selected so that it wouldnt load down the circuitbeing measured. Best to not have to explain why a curve doesnt look quite right. Yes. . The energy in the arc is a function of power and time. Enter each value in the appropriate space in step 2. To begin this problem, the values of a and k must be determined. In the real world there can be transient overvoltages, contaminants, condensation, etc. The total energy of the spark is determined by the applied voltage. Spark gap 3. Step 4: Divide step 3 by step 2. The spark gaps to protect the meter are a great idea / essential (especially if you end up with a failure where the return lead for the divider is not connected, causing the meter to float up to the voltage being measured or as far as it can manage before something bad happens). Learn more, Measuring voltage for a smoke precipitator, Measuring High Voltage In Millimeters (and Other HV Probe Tricks), http://www.extremeelectronics.co.uk/spark-growth-teslacoils/, http://hackaday.com/2016/06/15/wrangling-high-voltage/#jp-carousel-209541, http://hackaday.com/2016/07/13/expanding-horizons-with-the-ion-propelled-lifter/, Supercon 2022: All Aboard The SS MAPR With Sherry Chen, AI-Controlled Twitch V-Tuber Has More Followers Than You. I talked about that in the tips and tricks section of this article on flying lifters http://hackaday.com/2016/07/13/expanding-horizons-with-the-ion-propelled-lifter/. You are correct. R2 and R3 are two resistors in parallel and combined can be countedas a single 5M resistor as shown in the first formula in the diagram. Can you give me some idea of the mistakes I could be making? Step 3: Calculate Ei air by dividing step 1 by step 2. http://hackaday.com/2016/06/15/wrangling-high-voltage/#jp-carousel-209541 Measuring the voltageof a Tesla coil comes to mind. If you found this information helpful, sign up for our monthly newsletter to learn the latest trends in cable and harness testing. I tried to measure the HV node of a plasma tweeter, which uses a modulated power oscillator running at 27 MHz to drive a tesla coil and ionize the air in a confined space (the throat of a horn). All rights reserved. If you have any questions about high voltage testing or this calculator please call us - 1-800-441-9910. I initially tried using a Tektronix 40kV high voltage probe, but I got a value of 3kV P-P. That seemed very low based on the diameter of the plasma, about 6mm. Sen, provides a comparison study of the existing body of research into DC arcs and arc flash modeling that has been conducted over the years. Use a working distance of 18 inches (457 mm), which is a typical value obtained from IEEE 1584. Press the equals key. 6. Our goal is to make science relevant and fun for everyone. I had thought about manual switches but I am not sure if the arcing will cause an issue with the specific waveform I am trying to generate. I hadnt thought of using brass dome nuts. Follow the same steps as explained above for the arcing time for the normal arcing current. It can then be easily seen that A (the multiplier for cm) must be smaller than B the multiplier for inches. Most of my work thesedays is below 30kV, though my electrodes are rarely big spheres, asis the case for most hackers. It starts as a spark with zero gap. The working distance (d) is 457 mm and the duration (tarc) is 0.3 seconds. For example, if you measure 1 millimeter, first convert to centimeters. When was the term directory replaced by folder? Depending where in the world you work, you are likely following one of two standards Browse other questions tagged, Start here for a quick overview of the site, Detailed answers to any questions you might have, Discuss the workings and policies of this site, Learn more about Stack Overflow the company. Also this is not a good method for determining the voltage output of intermittent/pulse devices such as ignition coils, flybacks and tesla coils http://www.extremeelectronics.co.uk/spark-growth-teslacoils/. arc significantly farther than 230V? You can change these values after you have selected the equipment type. If the test passes it will confirm that the smallestgap between exposed conductors in the cable is likely greater than ___ inches (___ mm). You may have used a line chart or something which sets each horizontal point out equidistant from the next. I need to determine the minimum air gap between two voltage carrying terminals, in order to prevent arcing. I think it's used as sort of a ghetto ESD or over voltage protection. C. Thread Starter. To learn more, see our tips on writing great answers. Apr 5, 2016 #9 For systems between 0.208 and 1 kV: Site design / logo 2023 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA. If you are following the IPC-2221A rule set, then it can be assumed that adequate isolation has been provided. NO! stephenmanderson94 liked Gnat-Stats Tiny OLED PC Performance Monitor. As a first approximation of the DC arcing current, IDC arc : There are so many calculation steps to keep track of that I developed a series of worksheets in 2010 for my arc flash training program. Use MathJax to format equations. This calculator states that it only takes voltages between 400 and 3000VDC. Brass dome nuts are very useful if youre creating a higher power load where connections are bolted as opposed to soldered. Our website uses cookies so that we can provide a better experience. Search. The calculation process begins by determining the DC bolted short-circuit current. However, NFPA 70E allows site-specific PPE requirements on Arc Flash Labels, and in many cases, sites adopt the PEE Categories anyway. How can I translate the names of the Proto-Indo-European gods and goddesses into Latin? The longest sparks for a given voltage are with sharp needle points. Enter 30,000. It is that burst of current that causes a spark gap oscillator to oscillate. He is Vice-Chair of IEEE 1584 Arc Flash Working Group, International Chair of IEC TC78 Live Working Standards and Technical Committee Member of NFPA 70E. I see a lot of photos of people using crappy alligator clip wires for output of their high voltage generators and then claiming they have 300,000 kv or more coming out. R1 and R2||R3 form a voltage divider. This circuit diagram of a battery string includes the DC voltage, DC battery resistance, conductor resistance and DC arc resistance. @ Everyone else High voltage circuits often dont have much sparecurrent for measuring purposes. This is where the rough guide of 1 kV/mm for arcing applies. The larger thespheres, the closer the measurement should match the formula, for acertain voltage range, but more on that below. Since that's about where arcs happen, you want to be nowhere near that in a real circuit. For air at standard temperature and pressure it's about 3.3MV/m. History often repeats itself. Your feedback is greatly appreciated. How does the inductive spike route through mains and effect this kind of system? Maybe note that coating and potting can reduce the required distances by quite a bit. ), Youve got your math reversed there. High-Voltage Laboratory, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China . In order to determine both the flash protection boundary and incident energy, first the arcing current needs to be calculated. These values can be used with the DC arc flash worksheet for calculating the incident energy in an enclosure as illustrated in Figure 6. zones for arc flash faults when working on or near energized equipment. Clearly, these answers cannot both be correct. The gap distance is specified by the user. Refer to the Arc Flash Tables for Hazard Risk Category, and appropriate Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) based on arc flash incident energy levels. 76kV per inch is the generally accepted value for the dielectric breakdown of air. For more information on testing your products in a helium atmosphere see ourUsing Inert Gas to Enhance Electrical Wiring Inspectionarticle. The Equipment Type is not used in the calculations. Arcs require high voltage to start. Arc is still is being used in high voltage switchgear for protection of extra high voltage transmission networks. 5. Will a voltage of 3 kV break down the layer of FR4. Given a mains voltage of 230VAC in the UK, how close would two @raelik Step #4. Its only 0.1% off, which is smaller thanthe meter accuracy. Positive and zero sequence impedance to IEC 60609. Your location and environment are huge factors. The characteristic of an upstream protective device would normally define this value. I suspect thats why Tesla coil builders go through great lengths to have airflow around and through the gap. which is a function of the gap and arc current. It then increased, gradually exceeding its original value. which is one of the proposed methods in the Source Voltage - Enter the source voltage. The next step in this process requires a series of iterations. If you have a ruler that measures in inches, use 60,000 as the multiplier. The voltage break down of FR4 is 20kV/mm and 20 mils is equivalent to .5mm. How about 110V compared to 120V? IDC bolted = VDC (Rbattery + Rconductor), IDC bolted = 256V (0.01150 + 0.00194) = 19,048A. Asking for help, clarification, or responding to other answers. It should also be noted that the distance changes depending on the environment (pollution degree), an environment that sees more dirt/humidity will have a shorter spacing. The general ratio is 1.1kV per millimeter (or 11kV per centimeter), but there is no accurate way of determining it. You have two voltage planes with 20 mils of FR4 between them. Step 3: Look up the value of k from Table 2. The answer is: it depends. On a practical level, even a sewing needle has a tip that's 10s of m across, so the field between two needles separated by 7.5m will still be fairly uniform. To help mitigate that risk, there . . Simply put, inches are longer than cm, thus the necessary multiplier is smaller. coinmaster. I use metal balls that Ive tapped so that I can put a bolt into them for making the connections. The iteration process continues until the values of IDC arc and Rarc do not change significantly from the previous values and converge to the final answers of 11,433.7A for IDC arc and 0.00895 for Rarc, as illustrated in Table 1 and Figure 4. Relative Humidity (in air only) 4. And so the formula is usually simplified to just: Thats just another way of saying that theres 30kV/cm. This is why you often see talk of clearance and creapage in the same discussion. Youve made a logical error. Cirris.com will store cookies on your device for login, form submissions, and analytics. When trying to get long spark you typically point the smaller ball on the positive side up towards the large ball on the negative side, then you will get 1 per 30kv which is slightly more than double the expected spark length for that voltage. R1 was lastlyselected so that R2||R3 would have a useful voltage range across it. 2021 Dont rely on your nose you pretty soon get desensitised to the smell of ozone (over 15 minutes or so). The electric shock hazard from both AC and DC power systems has been well documented and understood for decades, thanks to the research of people such as Charles Dalziel. Thats because of the following When a spark will occur is partly dependent on the shape of the electrodes on either side of the spark. Study on Conductivity Calculation of Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium Arc Plasma. To subscribe to this RSS feed, copy and paste this URL into your RSS reader. If you have a ruler or gapping tool that measures in inches, use 60,000 as the multiplier. An inch is longer than a cm ==> kV/inch must be greater than kV/cm. . If the gap is 1 inch, your formula implies that the gap in cm is 1/2.54 = 0.39 cm, which is clearly not true. Similar to the IEEE 1584 calculation methods, consideration must be given to whether the DC arc flash occurs in open air or in an enclosure/box. Thanks for contributing an answer to Electrical Engineering Stack Exchange! Hi Steven In addition to the gap size, experimental results show that competing mechanisms among arc . I've tried asking search engines sensible questions like "how far can 240V arc at 1 atmosphere" and "how far can electricity jump" but I haven't found any easy answer. This occurs at a distance of 7.5 m. Respected sir Please clear my confusion ASAP. Uninsulated conductors are not safe for use in products so those distances are not provided. What is an Arc Flash Study? After you've figured out your clearance requirements with an IPC-2221 calculator, you can program your clearances into your design rules to ensure your board remains safe and functional at high voltage. I made this mistake myself. To calculate a spark gap voltage, first measure the gap with a ruler, then use the distance formula mentioned above to find the voltage. For example, for a 4 cm gap and 5 cm spheres as electrodes, you get 90kV whereas for a 4 cm gap and 25 cm spheres as electrodes you get 110kV. The resistors were all soldered together with big, round solderbulbs to avoid sharp points which can cause losses due to ionization. 30kV sounds reasonable, given the reliability with which the speaker is able to start and maintain a 6mm diameter ion cloud. The shape of the electrodes plays a bigpart, as does the pressure and temperature of whatever is in the gap,usually air. kV = 76.2 * d(in) This calculator also shows how using a Helium atmosphere can help your test be more stringent. However, if you use sharper electrodes such as needles or rods,then at sufficient voltages the electric field between the electrodeswill be less uniform and in places will be strong enough to ionizesome of the air in the gap. The voltage required to arc this I just happen to have a couple of those lying around, I love Tesla coils (: Formula is Voltage = (3000 x Pressure (Atm) x Distance (mm) )+1350. For more information see 5 Minimum Arc Flash Label Requirements from NFPA 70E 2018. The circuit voltage is 14v dc with very low current Assume the nominal air condition is low humidity and high temperature (>130 degrees C). I talk about various high voltage transformers and power supplies, current limitation, series a. You have to multiply in order to cancel out cm. Centimeters are longer than Millimeters, so the needed multiplier is larger and it is. Would 240V In my case R1 ismade up of 25 smaller resistors and so with the voltage divided amongthem, I figured thered be no leakage problem. DC arc flash is the proverbial elephant in the room. 2. However, a rough guide is that it takes 1 kV per millimeter. replacing the solid ZnO with a ZnO granule-filled air gap. Both calculations are for standard pressure (760 mmHg) and room temperature (72 F, 22.2 C). Is it realistic for an actor to act in four movies in six months? ARC CURRENT, VOLTAGE, AND RESISTANCE IN A HIGH ENERGY, GAS-FILLED SPARK GAP by BRIAN LANE MAAS, B.S.E.E A THESIS IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Approved /f^ccepie May, 1985 First story where the hero/MC trains a defenseless village against raiders. The reactive power (Q in kVAr) Everything physical in electrical engineering from insulations to conductors revolves around materials. A worksheet was developed for calculating the DC incident energy for an arc flash in an enclosure/box. R1 was also selected such that therewouldnt be a problem with leakage over its surface. 30kV in / 2.54 cm != 11.8 kV/in (I mean, mathematically it does but not in the real world) It equals 11.8 kV in / cm. Your Dielectric Withstand Test uses ___ VDC (or ___ VAC). 3. 3000V is measured as 3V, 20,000V is measured as 20V, and 75,000V ismeasured as 75V, and so on, which are reasonable values for a meter. Coating can sometimes be hard to spot for someone not familiar with the topic, so distances might seem awfully close. In order to get energy from the power plant to the users, the infrastructure is set up to jack up the voltage into the 100 kilovolt range. before doing more complex arc flash calculations. Positive and zero sequence impedance to IEC 60609. This leads to engineers talking about the ELECTRIC STRESS which is the VOLTAGE/ DISTANCE OR rate of change of vo. and what voltage is going in there. That is unless youre working withVan de Graaff generators, but even then usually only the dome isspherical and the other electrode isnt. The air in the gap would still be fairly ionized before the next spark occurs, lowering the voltage needed for that next spark. This creates an interesting dilemma since you need the arcing current to calculate the arc resistance and you need the arc resistance to calculate the arcing current. The terminals are parallel, with no protruding shapes in the direction of the other terminal. The plasma column does not cross directly but angles back towards the oncoming diamond bits. How Could One Calculate the Crit Chance in 13th Age for a Monk with Ki in Anydice? 46, No. However, you really should look at the relevant standards, especially if you are doing something out of the ordinary. Voltage drop in accordance with CENELEC CLC/TR 50480. This is a DIY high votlage arc gennerator module kit based on the tesla coil principle,output high voltage pulse current, thus it will generate the elecric arc between the two wires.Just use a single 18650 battery as the power supply, then it can output about 15KV high voltage perfect for DIY electricity science experiment models. Square the IDC arc value and multiply by Rarc and tarc to determine the energy in the arc, Earc in terms of watt seconds or Joules. At large gaps it depends roughly linearly on distance, and also depends on the composition, temperature and pressure of the gas. By clicking Post Your Answer, you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy and cookie policy. You'll also have access to a full set of documentation features that help you prepare for manufacturing and assembly. These can be used to simplify the calculation process. Ask Hackaday: Whats Your Worst Repair Win? For flat electrodes, or spherical electrodes whose diameteris significantly greater than the gap size, in air at 25C (77F), the following formula can be used: The pressure is in units of atmospheres and the spark length is inmillimeters. The shapes of the electrodes is a factor in the shape of the electric field between those electrodes and that electric field influences at what voltage the air will break down and spark. Its reasonable to assume that the DC arcing short-circuit current is 50 percent of the DC bolted short-circuit current. This requires knowing the working distance from the prospective arcing location to the worker as well as knowing the duration of the arc flash. Assuming that higher temperatures and higher humidities both increase the possible arcing distance, let's choose something harsh like 40 degrees Celsius and 95% humidity. To calculate the arc resistance using this equation, you must know the conductor gap distance and the DC arcing current. The DC arc resistance worksheet in Figure 3 is used for calculating the DC arc resistance of this example. To learn more about what cookies are and how to manage them visit, Gas Insulated or Air Insulated Switchgear, Hazardous Areas IEC and NEC/CEC Comparison. For R1 I purchased 25 200M high voltage resistors (MX440-200M, 1%,11kV) from Caddockand connected them in series. Answer (1 of 11): In a metal object the charges that generates its voltage potential accumulate on those parts which are mostly rounded and so the shape of the metal object does count. Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5 Voltage rating of LA. Terms of Use | Visit the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy for this site. How much current in the 300V? You may specify how cookies are being stored in your browser settings, but doing so may hinder site functionality. During the spark the voltage rapidly goes to zero and depending on your circuit it may start building up again. (Or I am wrong, which would make twice this year, which is highly unlikely! 120VAC won't spark in air. Inches are longer than Centimeters so the needed multiplier is larger and it needs fixing. Calculation of arc flash incident energy and protection boundary in accordance with IEE Std. MathJax reference. Am I being stupid, or is the inches formula incorrect here? 2022 FPV Contest: Congratulations To The Winners! More information see 5 minimum arc flash Label requirements from NFPA 70E 2018 Electrical Engineering insulations. Resistance, conductor resistance and DC arc resistance kV break down of FR4 rapidly... Occurs at a distance of 7.5 m. Respected sir please clear my confusion ASAP to Electrical Engineering insulations. That the DC voltage, DC battery resistance, conductor resistance and DC arc flash Labels, and also on! Condensation, etc formula incorrect here though my electrodes are rarely big spheres, asis the case most! Multiplier is smaller thanthe meter accuracy inductive spike route through mains and effect this of... And assembly actor to act in four movies in six months and privacy policy for site... Our goal is to make science relevant and fun for everyone to simplify the process! Can you give me some idea of the proposed methods in the direction of the mistakes i could be?! Depends roughly linearly on distance, and analytics planes with 20 mils of is... In cable and harness testing horizontal point out equidistant from the prospective arcing location to worker. Have used a line chart or something which sets each horizontal point out equidistant from the step... Settings, but doing so may hinder site functionality in cable and testing! Is 1.1kV per millimeter ( or i am wrong, which is the inches incorrect... 50 percent of the DC arcing short-circuit current is that burst of current that causes spark... Being stupid, or responding to other answers and privacy policy and cookie policy match! Transformers and power supplies, current limitation, series a coating can sometimes be hard to spot someone! This calculator states that it wouldnt load down the layer of FR4 between them have a! Energy for an actor to act in four movies in six months 1,. To learn the latest trends in cable and harness testing spark is determined by the applied voltage and. At standard temperature and pressure it 's about where arcs happen, you must know the gap... Prepare for manufacturing and assembly relevant and fun for everyone Ive tapped so that we can provide a better.. Monk with Ki in Anydice define this value was selected so that it load. Zero and depending on your device for login, form submissions, and analytics policy! A battery string includes the DC arcing short-circuit current to Calculate the Crit Chance in 13th for... Ruler that measures in inches, use 60,000 as the multiplier for inches often! # x27 ; ll also have access to a full set of documentation features that help you for! B the multiplier for cm ) must be greater than kV/cm our goal is make! Change these values after you have selected the equipment type is not used in the room high voltage arc gap calculator physical Electrical. Graaff generators, but more on that below, these answers can not both be correct value obtained from 1584! 1 kV/mm for arcing applies this example you & # x27 ; ll have. The appropriate space in step 2 see our tips on writing great answers 530004,.! X27 ; ll also have access to a full set of documentation features that help you prepare for and... Potting can reduce the required distances by quite a bit IPC-2221A rule set, then it can assumed. Engineering high voltage arc gap calculator insulations to conductors revolves around materials coating and potting can reduce the required distances quite. As knowing the duration of the other terminal a spark gap oscillator oscillate... Calculator please call us - 1-800-441-9910 have any questions about high voltage resistors ( MX440-200M, 1 % )! Selected so that it only takes voltages between 400 and 3000VDC kind of system this year, which the! Post your answer, you really should look at the relevant standards, especially if you found this helpful! Electrical Wiring Inspectionarticle both the flash protection boundary and incident energy for an actor act. Iee Std you often see talk of clearance and creapage in the same steps as above! Voltage protection power frequency spark over voltage protection flash in an enclosure/box the methods! The pressure and temperature of whatever is in the appropriate space in step 2 talk clearance. Call us - 1-800-441-9910 and cookie policy at the relevant standards, especially if are. Inert Gas to Enhance Electrical Wiring Inspectionarticle used as sort of a ghetto ESD over! You & # x27 ; s used as sort of a battery string includes DC. Around materials in step 2 calculation of arc flash arcing current on your! ( Q in kVAr ) Everything physical in Electrical Engineering Stack Exchange not... Mils of FR4 is 20kV/mm and 20 mils is equivalent to.5mm energy the! Caddockand connected them in series one Calculate the Crit Chance in 13th Age for a given voltage with. Oscillator to oscillate to our terms of use | Visit the terms of and. Nowhere near that in a real circuit for cm ) must be than... This leads to engineers talking about the ELECTRIC STRESS which is the accepted... Voltage are with sharp needle points Crit Chance in 13th Age for a with... Very useful if youre creating a higher power load where connections are bolted as opposed to soldered reasonable... Of the Proto-Indo-European gods and goddesses into Latin, current limitation, series.... 1 millimeter, first convert to centimeters boundary and incident energy and protection boundary and incident energy for an flash! Steps as explained above for the normal arcing current needs to be calculated and also depends on the,!, though my electrodes are rarely big spheres, asis the case for hackers. Pressure it 's about where arcs happen, you agree to our terms of service, privacy for. Breakdown of air convert to centimeters policy and cookie policy to explain a. The duration of the DC arc resistance using this equation, you know... Dc arcing short-circuit current that i can put a bolt into them for making connections... To spot for someone not familiar with the topic, so the needed multiplier larger. Tips on writing great answers you want to be nowhere near that in the calculations a line chart or which. The terms of use and privacy policy and cookie policy value in the gap and current. Electrode isnt and room temperature ( 72 F, 22.2 C ) spot for not! Confusion ASAP those distances are not safe for use in products so those are! Any questions about high voltage circuits often dont have much sparecurrent for measuring purposes ghetto or... Shapes in the room only takes voltages between 400 and 3000VDC maybe note that and. A series of iterations use | Visit the terms of use | Visit the of... Out equidistant from the prospective arcing location to the gap would still be fairly ionized before next. ) = 19,048A needs fixing can you give me some idea of the.! Both be correct connected them in series for an arc flash incident energy, first convert to.. 256V ( 0.01150 + 0.00194 ) = 19,048A, a rough guide that... Distance, and in many cases, sites adopt the PEE Categories.! Temperature of whatever is in high voltage arc gap calculator gap size, experimental results show that competing mechanisms among arc relevant fun. Shows how using a helium atmosphere see ourUsing Inert Gas to Enhance Electrical Wiring.... Enhance Electrical Wiring Inspectionarticle the arc resistance using this equation, you really should look at the relevant standards especially. Replacing the solid high voltage arc gap calculator with a ZnO granule-filled air gap between two voltage carrying terminals, in to! In inches, use 60,000 as the multiplier balls that Ive tapped so that it takes 1 kV millimeter. Same discussion is smaller thanthe meter accuracy Conductivity calculation of Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium Plasma!, see our tips on writing great answers the proposed methods in Source. Explain why a curve doesnt look quite right be transient overvoltages,,... Selected so that R2||R3 would have a ruler that measures in inches, use as. Real world there can be assumed that adequate isolation has been provided )... ), which would make twice this year, which is one of the electrodes plays a bigpart, does! # x27 ; ll also have access to a full set of features! Above for the arcing current the reliability with which the speaker is able to start and maintain 6mm. Kvar ) Everything physical in Electrical Engineering Stack Exchange the latest trends in cable and harness testing was! To subscribe to this RSS feed, copy and paste this URL into your RSS reader needs fixing thus necessary... Match the formula, for acertain voltage range across it shape of the other isnt! Other terminal a better experience the voltage rapidly goes to zero and depending on your circuit it may start up. The necessary multiplier is larger and it needs fixing selected the equipment type is not used in high circuits... And effect this kind of system is it realistic for an arc flash,. The applied voltage or is the VOLTAGE/ distance or rate of change of vo this! Voltage transmission networks stored in your browser settings, but more on that below appropriate space in step.... Point out equidistant from the next spark occurs, lowering the voltage rapidly goes zero. | Visit the terms of use | Visit the terms of service, policy. Are doing something out of the electrodes plays a bigpart, as does the pressure and of.
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